Palaeolithic Period
The Paleolithic period in human history marks the earliest stage of human development, characterized by hunting-gathering as the primary means of subsistence. During this time, humans were unfamiliar with fire, which meant they consumed raw meat. Farming and animal husbandry were also unknown to them, and they relied entirely on natural resources for food and survival.
Lower Paleolithic Period:
- During the Lower Paleolithic period, humans primarily used core stone tools, which were large, irregularly shaped, and heavy. These tools were created by sharpening large stones from the sides and included tools like the hand-axe, cleaver, and chopper.
- Some of the earliest stone tools from this era were discovered in places such as the Sohan valley of Punjab (in modern-day Pakistan), Vadamadurai, and Attirampakkam near Chennai.
- Apart from stone tools, an interesting find from this period is a bone-made statue of a mother goddess found in the Lohand Nala region of the Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh.
- These Lower Paleolithic tools have been found in most parts of India, with exceptions in certain regions like the Ganges valley, southern Tamil Nadu, and the hilly areas of the Western Ghats.
- Key Paleolithic sites in India include Pallavaram (discovered by R.B. Foote), Gudiyam near Chennai, Hunsgi valley and Isampur in Karnataka, and the famous Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh where Acheulian tools were unearthed.
- Notably, the earliest evidence of human existence in India comes from the Narmada valley, where fossils of early humans, known as Narmada Human, have been found.
Middle Paleolithic Period:
- Globally, the Middle Paleolithic period is associated with Neanderthals in Europe and Homo sapiens in Africa, but no Neanderthal fossils have been found in India.
- In India, the Middle Paleolithic phase was first identified by H.D. Sankalia along the Pravara River at Nevasa in Maharashtra. This period saw the development of more advanced tools, though not as sophisticated as those of later periods.
Upper Paleolithic Period:
- The Upper Paleolithic period brought a greater emphasis on art, with evidence of paintings, beads, and ornaments emerging during this time. Bhimbetka cave paintings, discovered by V.S. Wakankar, are among the most notable examples of Paleolithic art in India, with some of these paintings dating back to this period.
- Bone tools and faunal remains were found in the Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh, indicating that humans of this period began to utilize different materials for tool-making.
- The tools from this period were found throughout India, except in the Gangetic plains and Kerala.
- Important archaeological sites from the Upper Paleolithic period include Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, Sohan valley in Punjab (Pakistan), Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, the Narmada valley, Krishna valley, Chottanagpur plateau, Hunsgi, and the Kurnool caves. These sites have provided a wealth of information about human life during this era.
Mesolithic Period
The Mesolithic period, or the Middle Stone Age, marks a transition phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. This era was characterized by the emergence of microliths, which were small, sharp stone tools that were highly effective for hunting and processing animal hides. These microliths also played a role in the creation of Mesolithic paintings, as the tools helped engrave figures on stones.
- The earliest evidence of domestication of animals in India was discovered at the Adamgarh site in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan, indicating that humans were beginning to move beyond a solely hunting-gathering existence. Mesolithic sites like Mahadaha, Sarai Nahar Rai, and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh have yielded a large number of bone implements, suggesting the development of more specialized tools for daily tasks.
- The Mesolithic people were not only hunters and gatherers but also had a rudimentary form of burial practices, hinting at emerging cultural and religious practices. At Damdama, double and triple burials have been found, while a grave containing four human skeletons was discovered at Sarai Nahar Rai. These burial sites show a more sophisticated understanding of death and possibly an early belief in the afterlife.
- In terms of their lifestyle, Mesolithic communities lived in semi-permanent and temporary settlements and displayed artistic skills, as evidenced by rock paintings and engravings. These people, though still mobile, were beginning to develop a more settled way of life, laying the groundwork for the later Neolithic period.
Neolithic Period
The Neolithic period signifies a crucial turning point in human history as it marked the beginning of agriculture. People in this era made significant strides in food production, and it is during this period that grains like rice and wheat were first produced. Two notable Neolithic sites, Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh and Mehrgarh in Pakistan, provide clear evidence of the cultivation of rice and wheat respectively. However, the earliest evidence of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent was found at Lahuradeva in Uttar Pradesh, with Belan valley near Prayagraj offering additional evidence of early rice cultivation.
- Neolithic tools were highly polished, making them more efficient for tasks such as farming and food production. People also became aware of copper during this period and began using it for various purposes, demonstrating their mastery of controlled fire. This technological advancement allowed them to process metals and improve the quality of their tools and household items.
- In Burzahom, located in the Kashmir valley, both human and animal skeletons were found, offering a glimpse into burial practices and human-animal relationships. In some pits, bones of dogs and deer were found alongside human skeletons in sitting positions, which suggests a ritualistic burial practice, possibly indicating early forms of spiritual belief or social hierarchy.
- Another significant Neolithic site, Sangana Kallu in Karnataka’s Bellari district, is famous for its ash mounds, which are believed to be the burnt remnants of seasonal camps used by Neolithic herdsmen communities. These ash mounds highlight the seasonal nature of Neolithic settlements, with people returning to the same places during certain times of the year to graze their livestock.
- The Neolithic period marks the beginning of sedentary life, with humans transitioning from mobile hunter-gatherer groups to more permanent settlements, driven by the development of agriculture, domestication of animals, and advancements in tools and technology.
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a sophisticated urban culture that thrived around 2500 BCE, marked by its advanced administration, urban planning, and infrastructure. Archaeological findings, such as public buildings like the Great Bath and Granaries, suggest a well-organized administration and centralization of power. The size and intricacies of structures such as these indicate a robust political organization led by influential individuals, possibly headmen or councils, as evidenced by raised habitations at the centers of cities.
Political and Administrative Structure
The Indus Valley cities displayed exceptional political centralization, which historians attribute to its remarkable urban planning. This centralized governance likely allowed for a coordinated system of administration, as seen in the planning and construction of key public structures such as the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro. The granaries found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro were strategically built to store surplus grains, highlighting the central management of food resources. These granaries and large public buildings reflect the civilization’s ability to organize labor and distribute resources on a large scale.
Urban Planning
Prominent archaeologists such as Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggott have noted that Indus Valley cities were meticulously planned, exhibiting a grid-patterned layout of streets oriented along north-south and east-west axes. The cities had divisions between raised citadels and lower towns, suggesting a clear distinction in the use and status of these areas. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Kalibangan featured citadels on the west side and lower towns on the east, while Lothal in Gujarat had a rectangular settlement fortified by a brick wall without internal divisions.
The drainage systems in cities like Mohenjo-daro were highly advanced, with each house connected to street drains equipped with manholes for cleaning. In Kalibangan, many homes had their own wells, emphasizing the importance of sanitation and access to water in daily life. This meticulous urban planning and emphasis on health and cleanliness were unparalleled among other Bronze Age civilizations.
Economic Life
The economic sustenance of the Indus Valley cities was primarily driven by agriculture, supplemented by animal husbandry, trade, and commerce. The people of the Indus Valley were pioneers in cotton cultivation, and they exported finished products such as jewelry, handicrafts, and toys. The Lothal dockyard is evidence of the civilization’s long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other regions, further supported by Harappan seals found in Mesopotamian records. Trade was conducted through a barter system, and weights and measures were standardized, with a base of 16, to facilitate commercial transactions.
Indus cities imported various raw materials such as copper, lapis lazuli, and shells, which were processed into finished goods. Lapis lazuli was sourced from Shortughai, carnelian from Lothal, and copper from Rajasthan and Oman.
Religious and Ritual Practices
The religious practices of the Indus Valley Civilization remain somewhat elusive, as their script has yet to be deciphered. However, archaeological discoveries, such as fire altars and terracotta figurines, offer insights into their beliefs. The Great Bath is thought to have had ritual significance, likely used for ceremonial bathing. Scholars suggest that religious practices involved a focus on cleanliness and water, which may have had a symbolic or purifying function.
In terms of burial practices, the Harappans buried their dead in a north-south orientation, often with grave goods such as pots, jewelry, and personal belongings, reflecting a belief in the afterlife. Social stratification is evident from the variation in burial goods, with wealthier individuals being buried with more elaborate offerings.
Art, Craftsmanship, and Metallurgy
The Harappans were skilled in a variety of crafts, particularly in bronze metallurgy. The famous Dancing Girl figurine from Mohenjodaro is a masterpiece in bronze sculpture, showcasing the artisans’ advanced knowledge of metalwork. Other crafts such as pottery, seal making, and textile weaving flourished in the civilization. Pottery was often painted with images of trees, animals, and geometric designs, and was produced in various shapes like goblets and cylindrical vessels.
The Harappan seals were among the most remarkable artistic creations, often featuring inscriptions and depictions of animals like one-horned bulls, tigers, and rhinoceroses. The seals were likely used by merchants for trade purposes, reflecting the civilization’s organized economic structure. Over 2000 seals have been found, highlighting their importance in daily life.
Domestication of Animals
In addition to their agricultural prowess, the Harappan people domesticated a variety of animals, including oxen, buffaloes, camels, asses, goats, and dogs. These animals played a crucial role in transportation, agriculture, and as sources of food. The humped bull was especially valued, and evidence suggests that rhinoceroses and elephants may have been hunted for food. Interestingly, horse remains are largely absent from Harappan sites, except for a few discoveries in Surkotda and Banawali.
Cultural Legacy
The cultural remains of the Indus Valley Civilization reflect a society that excelled in urban planning, craftsmanship, and governance. The citadels of cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa served as centers of both administration and religious activities, underscoring the civilization’s organized political and cultural life. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites where the cultural continuity from the Stone Age to the Harappan civilization can be traced.
The Indus Valley Civilization‘s non-Aryan origins set it apart from later civilizations like the Aryan culture, which was primarily rural. The contrast in their urban and rural ways of life highlights the evolution of early Indian civilizations.
IVC Cities and their findings
| IVC Town | Location & Description | Important Findings/Artefacts |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Located on the left bank of the Ravi River in Montgomery district, Punjab (Pakistan). | Male Torso |
| Mohenjodaro | Located on the right bank of the Indus River in Larkana district, Sindh (Pakistan). Discovered by RD Banerjee in 1922. Known as the “Mound of Dead Men”. The Great Bath was found here, likely used for ritual bathing. Evidence of cotton cloth. | Bearded Priest (steatite), Mother Goddess (terracotta), Dancing Girl (bronze), Pashupati Seal, bones of elephants |
| Chanudaro | Discovered by NG Majumdar in 1931. Remnants of Jhukkar and Jhangar cultures found. It was an industrial hub known for shell making, bangle making, and bead making. | Industrial artifacts related to shell, bangle, and bead making. |
| Dholavira | The second largest Harappan site in India, located in Gujarat. The town is rectangular, divided into three parts: Upper town, Middle town, and Lower town. Known for its advanced water management system with reservoirs and dams. | Great baths, reservoirs, dams. |
| Surkotada | Located in Kutch district, Gujarat. Evidence of horse bones and pot burials has been found here. | Horse bones, pot burials. |
| Daimabad | Known for the recovery of many bronze goods. | Bronze artifacts. |
| Lothal | Situated on the Bhogava River in Ahmedabad (Gujarat). The site is not fortified and contains evidence of rice husks, metalworks, a terracotta model of a ship, and fire altars. Discovered by SR Rao. Also known for the presence of a dockyard. | Rice husk, terracotta ship model, fire altars, dockyard, ivory scale. |
| Rangpur | Located in Gujarat. Known for the presence of large vegetative remains. People used to cultivate rice, bajra, and millet. | Vegetative remains, evidence of rice, bajra, and millet cultivation. |
| Kalibangan | Located in Rajasthan. A ploughed field and toy cart have been found here. The site also features fire altars and terracotta carvings, indicating a sacrificial tradition. | Ploughed field, toy cart, fire altars, terracotta carvings. |
| Banawali | Located in Haryana. Known for the terracotta replica of a plough. | Terracotta replica of a plough. |
| Rakhigarhi | The largest Harappan site, located on the Ghaggar-Hakra River in Hisar district, Haryana. | Largest Harappan site. |
| Bhirrana | The oldest Harappan site. | Oldest Harappan site. |
| Ropar | Located on the left bank of the Satluj River in Punjab. | Notable for its strategic location on the riverbank. |
| Sonauli/Sinauli | Located in Uttar Pradesh. Graves found in a north-south direction. | North-south graves. |
| Alamgirpur | Located on the Hindon River in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh. Found here were a small terracotta bead-like structure coated with gold, and evidence of cloth. Utensils with triangle, peacock, and squirrel impressions were also found here. | Terracotta bead coated with gold, cloth evidence, utensils with impressions of triangles, peacocks, and squirrels. |
| Hulas, Mandi | Located in Uttar Pradesh. | |
| Manda | Situated on the bank of the Chenab River in Jammu & Kashmir. This site is believed to have been used for procuring wood from the Himalayan regions and sending it downstream to other IVC towns. | Used for wood procurement and transportation. |
The Late Harappan and Chalcolithic sites, such as Daimabad in Maharashtra, yielded remarkable examples of metal-cast sculptures, reflecting the advanced craftsmanship of the time. Notably, the bead industry thrived in locations like Chanhudaro and Lothal, showcasing intricate designs and materials that point to a sophisticated level of trade and artistry. Additionally, cinnabar was utilized as a cosmetic in the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), underscoring the cultural significance of beauty and personal adornment. The Harappan culture also marks the earliest evidence of silver in India, sourced from the Zawar and Ajmer mines in Rajasthan, along with imports from Afghanistan and Iran, highlighting the extensive trade networks that connected the IVC with regions beyond the Indian subcontinent.
Chalcolithic Age
The Chalcolithic age, commonly referred to as the Copper Age, is notable for the introduction of copper as the first metal utilized by ancient civilizations. One of the significant cultures during this period is the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture, which thrived from 2600 to 1200 BCE in the Indo-Gangetic plain. There are indications that this culture might have had associations with the early Vedic culture.
Key Cultures of the Chalcolithic Era
- Ahar Culture (Banas Culture)
The Ahar culture, also known as the Banas culture, was an archaeological culture located along the banks of the Ahar River in southeastern Rajasthan (Mewar), flourishing from approximately 3000 to 1500 BCE. This culture was contemporary to and adjacent to the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). The people of Ahar utilized copper tools and had knowledge of rice cultivation, suggesting an advanced agricultural society. Archaeological evidence primarily comes from sites like Atranjikhera and Hastinapur. - Jorwe Culture
The Jorwe culture emerged in a vast area of present-day Maharashtra, extending north into the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. The inhabitants constructed rectangular houses and believed in an afterlife, leading them to bury their dead beneath the floors of their homes, with the deceased positioned in a north-south orientation. Significant sites associated with the Jorwe culture include Daimabad, Inamgaon, Chandoli, and Nevasa.
Navdatoli, excavated by HD Sankalia stands out as the most extensively explored rural Chalcolithic site across the Indian subcontinent, nestled in Madhya Pradesh. This site provides invaluable insights into the lives of people during that era.
Chandraketugarh, found in the Ganga delta of West Bengal, emerged as a major hub for terracotta crafts. This location highlights the artistic skills and cultural practices of the time, showcasing the significance of craftsmanship in daily life.
The Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture thrived in Rajasthan during the Chalcolithic period, contributing to the rich tapestry of ancient Indian civilizations. Additionally, the Indus Valley Civilization was known as a bronze civilization, reflecting its advanced metallurgy. The transition to the Iron Age occurred with the growing knowledge of iron during the Vedic era, marking a crucial development in technological and cultural evolution in ancient India.
Iron Age in India
The Iron Age in India, spanning approximately from 1200 BCE to 600 CE, marked a pivotal era characterized by advancements in iron metallurgy, urbanization, and significant socio-economic changes. This period began with the emergence of iron tools and weapons, which greatly enhanced agricultural productivity and military capabilities.
During the early Iron Age, the Painted Grey Ware culture thrived, particularly in the Ganga-Yamuna doab region. This culture was characterized by subsistence strategies that included hunting and rudimentary farming, indicating a low agricultural output. As time progressed, the Northern Black Polished Ware culture emerged, showcasing improved craftsmanship and an increased use of iron in everyday tools, facilitating more extensive agricultural practices and trade.
Urban centers such as Taxila and Kosambi began to flourish, reflecting complex societal structures and significant economic activities driven by iron technology. The iron tools, especially plows and axes, played a crucial role in transforming agrarian practices, contributing to surplus production and the growth of urban settlements.