A&M Chapter 4

Magadha Mahajanapada

The Rise of the Mauryas

Before the rise of the Maurya Empire, the powerful Nanda Empire ruled a large portion of the Indian subcontinent. Known for its strong military and economic prowess, the Nandas had consolidated control over various mahajanapadas (ancient Indian kingdoms). The foundation of the Maurya Empire is tied to the strategic brilliance of Chanakya (Kautilya), a minister in the Nanda court, and Chandragupta Maurya, his protégé.

Chanakya’s Vow of Revenge

According to legends, Chanakya went to Pataliputra (the capital of Magadha) and served as a minister under the Nandas. However, after a disagreement with Dhana Nanda, the reigning monarch, Chanakya was insulted and forced to flee for his life. He vowed revenge and sought to destroy the Nanda Empire. Chanakya fled to Taxila, an important center of learning, and took on a teaching position. During his travels, he met Chandragupta, a young man who displayed qualities of leadership and military potential.

Chandragupta’s Rise

With Chanakya’s guidance, Chandragupta was trained in the art of statecraft and warfare. He gathered an army by recruiting local military republics, such as the Yaudheyas, who had resisted Alexander the Great‘s forces. During this time, Alexander had launched his campaign into Punjab but was forced to retreat after his soldiers mutinied at the Beas River. Following Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and Chandragupta seized the opportunity to conquer the satraps (territories) left by Alexander’s generals in the Indus Valley.

Overthrow of the Nanda Empire

The actual details of Chandragupta’s campaign against the Nanda Empire are sparse, and historical records vary. While Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu sources all agree that Magadha was ruled by the Nandas, they differ in describing the intensity of the conflict. Some texts depict a bitterly fought campaign, as the Nandas possessed a well-trained and powerful army. Chandragupta, aided by Chanakya, initially conquered the outer territories of the Nanda Empire before turning his attention to the capital, Pataliputra.

Despite some legends claiming a relatively swift victory, the Jain and Hindu texts describe a protracted struggle. After a series of battles and the eventual siege of Pataliputra, Dhana Nanda either surrendered, was deposed, or killed depending on the source. With the fall of the Nandas, Chandragupta Maurya established the Maurya Empire in 321 BCE, marking the beginning of one of India’s greatest empires.

The Mauryan Empire

Administration

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four major provinces with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the known provincial capitals were Tosali in the east, Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri in the south, and Taxila in the north. The administration of each province was overseen by a Kumar or prince, who acted as the emperor’s representative. The Kumar was supported by Mahamatyas (great ministers) and a Council of Ministers, a system that reflected the organization at the imperial level. The empire also had a well-developed coin minting system, where most coins were made of silver and copper, with some gold coins in circulation. Coins played a significant role in trade and commerce.

The organization of the empire is often believed to follow the bureaucratic system described by Chanakya in his work, the Arthashastra. This complex civil service system handled everything from municipal management to international trade. The Mauryan military, one of the largest armies of the time, reportedly had 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 9,000 war elephants, according to Megasthenes. There was also a sophisticated espionage system that gathered intelligence for both domestic and foreign security. Even though Ashoka adopted a policy of non-violence after the Kalinga war, he maintained this vast army to ensure peace and stability across South and West Asia. Despite the empire’s vast control, the transmission of information and imperial messages was limited due to the inaccessibility of remote regions.

The Mauryan administration, as detailed in Kautilya’s Arthashastra, was based on the concept of ‘Saptang’ or the seven organs of the state. This framework structured the empire and ensured efficient governance. Each organ represented a key aspect of administration, and officials were appointed accordingly. These officials included:

• Shulkadhyaksh: The revenue officer responsible for overseeing tax collection and financial matters.
• Sitadhyakash: An official who looked after the land and managed agricultural activities.
• Nagarika: The City Superintendent, responsible for maintaining order in cities and urban centers.
• Guptachar: A spy or secret agent responsible for collecting intelligence and ensuring internal security.
• Pradeshika: The top official in a division, acting as the governor for large regions within the empire.
• Rajjuka: Officials in the rural areas who functioned as surveyors while also performing judicial duties and managing tax assessments.

The Mauryan justice system was also well-organized with Dharmasthiya, which can be compared to modern civil courts, and Kantakshodana, which functioned like criminal courts.

Emperor Ashoka made significant contributions to public welfare by establishing hospitals and appointing a large number of Bhesaj (physicians) to ensure the health of his subjects. Ashoka is also recognized as the first king to create wildlife sanctuaries, showing a concern for both human and environmental welfare.

The Mauryan rulers were attentive to the empire’s agricultural needs. They constructed canals and took care of irrigation facilities to boost agricultural productivity, reflecting the administration’s focus on infrastructure development.

Local Government

The Arthashastra and Megasthenes‘ accounts of Pataliputra highlight the complex municipal system that governed the cities. A city council consisting of thirty commissioners was divided into six committees or boards, each with specific responsibilities. These included fixing wages, managing foreign dignitaries and tourists, recording transactions, overseeing manufacturing and trade, regulating commerce, and collecting taxes. Some cities like Taxila had autonomy and minted their own coins. Local authorities, such as the Gramika in villages and the Nagarika in cities, managed public welfare, including road maintenance, market regulation, hospital and school oversight. They also had limited magisterial powers. The census was regularly taken, documenting different professional classes and livestock for taxation purposes. This census system helped consolidate vocations into castes, a practice that continues to influence Indian society today.

Economy

The Mauryan Empire was the first to bring political unity and military security to South Asia, creating a common economic system that boosted trade and agriculture. The chaotic landscape of multiple kingdoms, armies, and wars gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were relieved from burdensome taxes imposed by regional kings and instead paid a centralized tax system as advised by the Arthashastra. Under Chandragupta Maurya, a single currency was introduced, and a network of governors, administrators, and civil services provided justice and security to traders, merchants, and farmers. The Mauryan army also eliminated bandits and regional private armies, consolidating power across small regions.

Under Ashoka, international trade flourished, and treaties such as the Indo-Greek friendship treaty opened new avenues of commerce. The Khyber Pass, an important trade route on the modern Pakistan-Afghanistan border, became a key gateway for trade with Greek states and West Asian kingdoms. The empire exported silk, spices, textiles, and exotic foods, while simultaneously gaining access to new scientific knowledge and technology. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of numerous roads, canals, hospitals, and other public infrastructure, further boosting the economy.

The Mauryan economy is often compared to that of the Roman Empire in terms of its extensive trade networks and economic structure. While Rome used its organizations for state-driven projects, Mauryan India saw the rise of numerous private commercial entities that operated independently, marking a significant evolution in economic practices during that era.

Religion

While Brahmanism remained significant during the Mauryan era, the Mauryan rulers, being from the non-Vedic Magadha realm, favored Jainism, Buddhism, and Ajivikism. Brahmanism, which had been prominent in the conquered Kuru-Panchala region, faced reduced influence during this period. However, this led to its transformation into a more integrated socio-political ideology, which played a crucial role in the later Hindu synthesis, combining Brahmanical ideology, local traditions, and Śramaṇa traditions.

Greek traveler Megasthenes reported that Chandragupta Maurya performed Brahmanical rituals and sacrifices. However, a 12th-century Jain text claims that after retiring, Chandragupta embraced Jainism, renounced his throne, and followed the strict santhara (fast unto death) ritual at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka, though some historians suggest this account may refer to his great-grandson. Chandragupta’s grandson, Samprati, was also a Jain patron. Under the influence of Jain monks like Suhastin, Samprati reportedly built 125,000 derasars (Jain temples) across India, some of which still exist in places like Ahmedabad, Ujjain, and Palitana.

Ashoka, after the Kalinga war, embraced Buddhism and adopted its values of non-violence and compassion. He sent Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka, led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta, and to Greece, West Asia, and Southeast Asia to spread Buddhism. Ashoka is credited with building as many as 84,000 stupas across India, including prominent ones like Sanchi and the Mahabodhi Temple. His reign saw the convening of the Third Buddhist Council, which aimed to reform and expand the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants also played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism across the empire and beyond.

Society

According to Megasthenes, Mauryan society was divided into seven castes, such as artisans, peasants, and others. Each caste had strict boundaries regarding marriage and occupation. Interestingly, Megasthenes noted that there was no slavery in the Mauryan society, which contrasted with many other ancient civilizations. Women held a respectable position in society and could even be appointed to high official positions. Crimes or violence against women and children were treated with zero tolerance, reflecting a progressive stance for the time.

Taxes in the empire came from sources like ‘Bhaga’ (a share of agricultural produce) and ‘Bali’ (a form of tribute). Tax evasion was strictly punished, though Brahmins, the elderly, and the disabled were exempt from taxes, demonstrating a welfare-oriented approach.

Architectural Remains

The Mauryan period produced some of the finest examples of early Indian architecture. The most significant structure from Chandragupta Maurya’s reign was the old palace at Pataliputra (modern Patna), described by Megasthenes as surpassing the grandeur of the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. The palace featured an immense pillared hall, with 80 timber columns adorned with golden vines and silver birds, all within a vast park. Excavations have revealed remains of this grand palace, which included fish ponds and various ornamental trees.

Under Ashoka, the use of stone architecture flourished, with many free-standing pillars, stupas, and colossal Buddhist monuments. The Ashoka Pillars, spread throughout the subcontinent, are notable examples of this, often featuring exquisite decoration and inscriptions. Ashoka also built stupas, such as those at Sanchi, Bodhgaya, and Bharhut, marking the beginnings of Buddhist architecture. The peacock, symbolizing the Mauryan dynasty, was often depicted in these structures, including on Ashoka’s pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.

Ashokan Inscriptions

The Ashokan inscriptions are a remarkable collection of edicts attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire, who ruled from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. These inscriptions, carved on rocks and pillars across the Indian subcontinent, provide invaluable insights into Ashoka’s governance, his conversion to Buddhism, and his efforts to promote moral and ethical conduct among his subjects. This article delves into the details of these inscriptions, categorizing them into rock and pillar inscriptions, and further distinguishing between major and minor edicts.

The Ashokan inscriptions can be broadly classified into two categories:

• Rock Inscriptions
  • Major Rock Edicts
  • Minor Rock Edicts
• Pillar Inscriptions
  • Major Pillar Edicts
  • Minor Pillar Edicts

Rock Inscriptions

Major Rock Edicts

The Major Rock Edicts consist of 14 primary edicts that convey Ashoka’s moral philosophy and administrative principles. They were inscribed on large boulders in various locations across the empire.

After the 12th year of Ashoka’s reign, these major rock edicts were inscribed in ten locations across India, generally placed along the borders of his empire.

Minor Rock Edicts

The Minor Rock Edicts, while less extensive than the major ones, still convey important messages about Ashoka’s policies and beliefs.

• Found in locations such as Maski (Karnataka) and Gurjara.
• The earliest edicts inscribed from the 10th to 11th year onwards of Ashoka’s rule.
• Minor Edict I at Maski is notable for being the only edict that mentions “Asoka” with the salutation Devanamappiya (Beloved to the gods). In all other places, he is referred to as Piyadain (pleasant to behold).
• Minor Edict III is present only in the Bhabru inscription at Bairat, where he refers to himself as King of Magadha, Piyadasin.

Pillar Inscriptions

Major Pillar Edicts

The Major Pillar Edicts consist of seven key inscriptions that are more concise than their rock counterparts but emphasize Ashoka’s embrace of Buddhism and ethical governance.

Minor Pillar Edicts

The minor pillar edicts include several significant inscriptions that focus on specific events or directives:

• The Schism Edict, which warns against divisions within the Buddhist community.
• The Queen’s Edict, which mentions Ashoka’s second queen.
• The Rummindei Pillar Inscription, marking Buddha’s birthplace and exempting it from taxes.
• The Nigali Sagar Pillar Inscription, detailing Ashoka’s visit to significant Buddhist sites.