The Harsha Kingdom

Harsha, also known as Harshavardhana, was one of the most influential monarchs of his time, ruling over Northern India from 606 to 647 CE.

Harsha ascended the throne after the untimely death of his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, who had been murdered by Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda. Despite being the younger brother, Harsha’s selection as king was discussed and approved by his council of ministers, led by the influential minister Bhandi. This decision highlighted Harsha’s leadership qualities, as the ministers believed in his capability to unify the kingdom. Upon his accession, Harsha immediately declared war on Shashanka and embarked on a digvijaya (campaign of conquest), consolidating his power across northern India.

Harsha’s proclamation to other Indian rulers was clear: they had to either submit to his authority or prepare for war. He spent six years waging warfare against the largest kingdoms in India and successfully expanded his empire. His military included a formidable elephant corps of 60,000 and a cavalry force of 100,000. After these conquests, Harsha ruled in peace for thirty years, maintaining suzerainty over semi-independent rulers across his empire.

Administration and Governance

Harsha’s administration was modeled on traditional Hindu principles of governance as described in the Nitisastra, Dharmashastra, and Arthashastra. His governance was enlightened, and he ruled in a way that emphasized the happiness of his subjects as a measure of his own success. Harsha personally toured his empire regularly to stay informed about the condition of his people and ensure their grievances were addressed.

A notable feature of Harsha’s administration was the prominent role played by his Council of Ministers, which wielded considerable power in matters of state. The council, also known as the Matriparisad, even played a role in electing the king, and Harsha frequently consulted his ministers on important decisions. This council, along with other administrative officers, ensured the smooth functioning of the empire, even during Harsha’s frequent tours. Banabhatta’s Harsacharita and Hsuan Tsang’s account both describe Harsha’s habit of constantly being on the move, either on military expeditions, administrative tours, or for religious reasons. Despite his personal involvement, Harsha’s government was not despotic; his ministers exercised great influence, and decisions were made collectively.

Military and Foreign Relations

Harsha’s military administration was extensive, and his army was crucial in his efforts to expand his empire. High-ranking officers such as the Senapati (commander-in-chief) and Mahabaladhikrita (supreme commander of the army) played key roles in the military administration. Harsha’s campaigns were directed at both territorial expansion and asserting dominance over neighboring rulers. His attempt to extend his empire southward was thwarted by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king, who defeated him in the Battle of Narmada. Despite this setback, Harsha maintained diplomatic relations with foreign powers, including China. The Tang emperor Tai Tsung sent embassies to Harsha’s court, further strengthening the ties between the two empires.

Provincial and Local Administration

Harsha’s empire was divided into administrative units called rajya (territory), rastra, desa, or mandala, which were further subdivided into bhuktis (provinces), visayas (districts), pathakas (sub-districts), and gramas (villages). Each unit had its own set of officials responsible for governance. The vishayapatis (district lords) administered the districts with the help of councils and local headmen. Villages enjoyed a high degree of autonomy, with local governance largely in the hands of village councils and headmen. This system allowed for decentralized governance while maintaining coordination between the central government and local administrations.

The bureaucracy under Harsha was well-organized, with officials such as the Uparika-maharaja (provincial governor), Gopta (governor), Rashtriya (regional administrator), and Visayapati (divisional commissioner) overseeing various levels of administration. The Mahasamantas and Maharajas, who were often feudatories or allied rulers, held high positions in the administration. A specialized group of officers, including Drangikas (city magistrates), Mahattaras (village elders), and Gaulmikas (forest or fort supervisors), were responsible for local governance and law enforcement.

Revenue and Judicial Administration

Harsha’s revenue system was relatively lenient, with the crown lands providing the bulk of the state’s income. Taxes were light, and forced labor contributions were rare, allowing the people to maintain their livelihoods without undue burden. According to Hsuan Tsang, the state’s demands were reasonable, and there were few restrictions on the people’s freedom.

Harsha’s judicial administration was based on a severe penal code that was applied with moderation. Crimes such as treason were punishable by life imprisonment, while other offenses could result in mutilation, banishment, or fines. Trial by ordeal, including ordeals by water, fire, and poison, was commonly used to determine guilt or innocence. Despite the severity of the penal code, torture was not used to extract confessions, and the legal system was considered fair and just. Hsuan Tsang remarked on the rarity of criminal activities in Harsha’s empire, attributing it to both the efficiency of the administration and the moral character of the people.

Religious and Cultural Contributions

Harsha was a patron of Buddhism, although he was tolerant of other religions, including Hinduism and Jainism. His sister, Rajyashri, who had embraced Buddhism, played a significant role in influencing Harsha’s religious beliefs. Harsha organized grand assemblies every five years to promote Buddhism, attracting scholars and religious leaders from across the region.

Harsha’s reign was also marked by a flourishing of art, culture, and literature. His court attracted scholars such as Banabhatta, who wrote the Harshacharita, a biography of Harsha. Harsha himself was an accomplished poet and playwright, and his reign is considered a golden age of Sanskrit literature. The period saw the production of numerous works of art, including Buddhist sculptures and Hindu temples.

The Chalukyas

The Chalukyas emerged as a powerful force after the decline of the Gupta Empire, marking a new era of regional dominance. This article delves into the history of the three branches of the Chalukya dynasty: the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, and the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. The Chalukya period saw the rise of a vast empire, advancements in architecture and literature, and the spread of both Hinduism and Jainism.

Origins and Early History

The Chalukyas rose to prominence after the decline of the Kadambas and the weakening of the Vakatakas. The Chalukyas of Badami were the first major dynasty under the Chalukya name. Their rule marks a significant period in the history of Karnataka, bringing unity to the Deccan region.

Chalukyas of Badami

The Chalukyas ruled over large parts of southern and central India, with their influence stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south.

• Pulakeshin I is considered the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, establishing his capital at Vatapi (modern-day Badami) around 543 CE. Pulakeshin I consolidated his power by subjugating neighboring regions, laying the foundation for the expansion of the Chalukya Empire. He and his descendants are referred to as the Badami Chalukyas.
• Pulakeshin II (610–642 CE), the most famous ruler of this dynasty, was instrumental in expanding the empire’s boundaries and consolidating its power. Pulakeshin II, known for his military prowess, halted the advance of Harsha of Kannauj at the Narmada River, marking a key event in South Indian history. His victory is recorded in the Aihole inscription, which also mentions his expansion into regions such as Gujarat, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh. He successfully defeated the Vishnukundinas in the southeast and maintained political control over the Deccan.

• His southern campaigns, however, were met with resistance from the Pallavas, led by Narasimhavarman I, who eventually defeated and temporarily occupied Vatapi in 642 CE, leading to the decline of the Badami Chalukyas. Pulakeshin II likely died during this battle.

The kingdom went into a brief decline after the death of Pulakeshin II but was revived under Vikramaditya I (655–680 CE), who reestablished Chalukya rule by defeating the Pallavas and pushing them out of Badami. His successor, Vijayaditya, is known for his peaceful reign and prolific temple-building activities.

• Vikramaditya II (733–744 CE), another prominent ruler, is celebrated for his military victories over the Pallavas and his invasion of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital. His reign is notable for being both military-focused and culturally rich. After defeating Pallava ruler Nandivarman II, Vikramaditya II displayed benevolence by not looting the Pallava temples, instead ordering the restoration of temples that had been damaged during previous conflicts.

The Chalukyas of Badami continued to rule until 753 CE, when they were overthrown by the Rashtrakutas.

Chalukyas of Vengi (Eastern Chalukyas)

The Eastern Chalukyas were established after the death of Pulakeshin II, when his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana was appointed as the governor of the eastern Deccan. In 621 CE, he declared independence and established the Chalukya rule in the Vengi region, which includes parts of modern-day Andhra Pradesh. The Eastern Chalukyas ruled from Vengi until the 11th century, with Vijayawada and later Rajahmundry serving as their capitals.

• The Eastern Chalukyas maintained a close relationship with their Western counterparts and frequently interacted with the Rashtrakutas. However, they often found themselves caught in the crossfire between the Cholas and Rashtrakutas, leading to political instability.
• Bhima I (892–921 CE) is one of the most notable Eastern Chalukyan rulers, as he managed to fend off Rashtrakuta control and briefly establish Vengi’s independence.

Later, the Cholas became heavily involved in Vengi politics, especially after the marriage alliance between the Cholas and Eastern Chalukyas. This alliance strengthened after Rajaraja Chola I married the daughter of Vimaladitya, a significant Eastern Chalukya king. The two dynasties merged, and by the 11th century, the Eastern Chalukyas were absorbed into the Chola Empire.

Chalukyas of Kalyani (Western Chalukyas)

The Western Chalukyas, also known as the Later Chalukyas, revived the Chalukya legacy in the late 10th century, after the decline of the Rashtrakutas. Tailapa II (973–997 CE) established his rule over the Deccan, marking the beginning of the Western Chalukya dynasty with their capital at Kalyani (modern-day Basavakalyan in Karnataka).

• Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126 CE) is considered the greatest ruler of this dynasty. His reign, which lasted 50 years, is known for the introduction of the Vikrama era and for his successful campaigns against the Cholas. Under his leadership, the Western Chalukyas expanded their influence over large parts of South India, including Vengi, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

The Western Chalukyas were constantly engaged in warfare with the Cholas, Hoysalas, and other contemporary South Indian kingdoms. Their decline began in the late 12th century, when the Hoysalas and Kalachuris rose to prominence, ultimately leading to the fall of the Western Chalukya Empire by the end of the 12th century.

Administration and Governance

The Chalukya Empire, especially under Pulakeshin II, was noted for its efficient and well-organized administration. The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), which were further subdivided into smaller units known as Rashtras, Vishayas, and Bhogas. These administrative divisions were managed by a range of officials, including governors, district heads, and village leaders. Local assemblies played a crucial role in village governance, particularly in agraharas (religious and educational centers).

• Taxation was a key feature of the Chalukyan administration, with taxes such as the herjunka (tax on loads), kirukula (tax on retail goods), and siddaya (land tax) contributing to the empire’s revenue.

The Chalukyas also maintained a strong military, which was a crucial factor in their ability to expand and defend their empire. The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and a navy. The Chalukyas were among the few South Indian dynasties to maintain a formidable naval presence, which they used to control coastal regions and engage in maritime trade.

Society and Religion

The Chalukyas were patrons of Hinduism, particularly Shaivism and Vaishnavism, as evidenced by the numerous temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu. The kings performed Vedic rituals and patronized Brahmins. Jainism also flourished during this period, and Jain temples were constructed in places like Aihole and Badami. The Badami cave temples, which include Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist monuments, exemplify the religious tolerance of the Chalukya rulers.

• Pulakeshin II was known for his religious tolerance, as he supported both Shaivite and Vaishnavite practices, and even Jainism. His court poet Ravikirti, a Jain, composed the famous Aihole inscription, which provides insights into the emperor’s reign and achievements.

Art, Architecture, and Literature

One of the most significant contributions of the Chalukyas was their development of Chalukyan architecture, which includes rock-cut and structural temples. The architectural achievements of the Chalukyas are concentrated in places like Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal, and Mahakuta, all in modern-day Karnataka.

• Aihole, referred to as the “cradle of Indian temple architecture,” is home to over 70 temples, showcasing a variety of architectural styles. The Durga Temple at Aihole, with its unique apsidal design, and the Lad Khan Temple, one of the earliest examples of a Hindu temple, are among the most important structures.
• The Pattadakal group of monuments, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, represents the culmination of Chalukyan temple architecture. The Virupaksha Temple and Mallikarjuna Temple at Pattadakal, built by the queens of Vikramaditya II to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas, are prime examples of Dravidian-style architecture.

The Chalukya period also saw significant advancements in literature, particularly in Sanskrit and Kannada. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshin II, composed works in Sanskrit. Kannada literature began to flourish under the Western Chalukyas, with Adikavi Pampa, Ranna, and Ponna being prominent Kannada poets of this era.