The Post-Mauryan period (200 BCE – 300 CE) was characterized by significant political fragmentation and cultural transformation, especially after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. Following the assassination of the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, in 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga, the empire disintegrated, leading to the rise of regional dynasties and foreign invasions, which reshaped the Indian subcontinent.
Foreign Kingdoms
Indo-Greeks
The Indo-Greeks began arriving in the Indian subcontinent around 165 BCE, with Demetrius I as their first notable ruler. Their capital was Shakala, which corresponds to modern-day Sialkot in Pakistan. One of their most significant contributions was the introduction of gold coins in India, making them the first to do so. They also played a key role in Indian theatre, bringing in the concept of curtains (Yavanika). One of the most prominent Indo-Greek rulers was Menander, who, after being influenced by the Buddhist monk Nagasena, converted to Buddhism and adopted the name Milind. Their philosophical discussions are famously recorded in the text Milind Panho.
Shakas (Scythians)
The Shakas, also known as the Scythians, arrived in India around 90 BCE from Central Asia. They entered in multiple branches and significantly impacted Indian history. The most important ruler of this branch was Rudradaman I, who is well-known for his Junagarh inscription found in the Girnar Hills. This inscription, written in pure Sanskrit, is the first of its kind and mentions that Rudradaman repaired the Sudarshan Lake, originally built by Pushyagupta Maurya. Rudradaman also claimed to have defeated the Satvahana ruler Vashisthiputra Satkarni, but he spared Satkarni’s life due to the matrimonial alliance between their kingdoms.
Parthians (Pahlavs)
The Parthians ruled briefly in India, with their influence lasting only a short period. Their most notable king was Gondophernes, under whose reign Saint Thomas is believed to have come to India to spread Christianity.
Kushanas
The Kushanas came in two branches and had a lasting influence on India. The first branch was led by Wima Kadphises around 65 CE. He was the first to introduce gold coins for regular use in India, and his coins often depicted Lord Shiva and his bull, signifying his devotion to Shiva. His predecessor, Kujula Kadphises, had circulated copper coins, but it was the Kushanas who issued the largest number of copper and gold coins in northern and northwestern India.
The second major ruler, Kanishka, came to power in 78 CE. He is famous for defeating the Northern Shakas and marking his victory by starting the Shaka Samvat calendar. Although initially a devotee of Lord Shiva, he embraced Mahayana Buddhism after being influenced by Buddhist monks Asvaghosha and Vasumitra, and he convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir. Kanishka was also a significant patron of Buddhist sculptures, especially in the Mathura and Gandhara regions. His reign was marked by tremendous urban growth, with new cities like Kanishkpur and Purushpur (modern-day Peshawar) emerging as important cultural and trade centers.
Kanishka is also credited with expanding trade along the Silk Route, establishing strong commercial ties with China and the Roman Empire. His reign saw a remarkable increase in monetization, with a large number of high-quality copper and gold coins being issued. The gold coins of this period were known for their purity. Additionally, the Kushanas are credited with introducing kurta pyjama into India, and the practice of child marriage is believed to have begun during their rule.
The famous Rabatak inscriptions found in Afghanistan belong to the Kushana period and were written in Greek script and Bactrian language. These inscriptions mention four Indian cities—Saket, Kaushambi, Pataliputra, and Champa—which highlights the geographical extent of the Kushana Empire.
Under Kanishka’s reign, several philosophers and scholars flourished. He patronized the Buddhist philosopher Asvaghosha, known for his works like Buddhacharita, which is a biography of the Buddha, and the first Sanskrit play, Sariputra Prakarana. Other scholars like Vasumitra and Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist teacher, also thrived under Kanishka’s rule. By 200-250 CE, the Kushana dynasty had declined, making way for the rise of the Guptas.
In this period, Indian literature witnessed the final shaping of texts like the Manusmriti, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, and Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra. Additionally, the great dramatist Bhasa, who hailed from South India, likely belonged to this period, contributing significantly to Sanskrit drama.
Domestic Powers
The Shunga Dynasty (185 BCE – 73 BCE) was founded by Pushyamitra Shunga, who took power after assassinating Brihadratha. He aimed to restore Vedic culture and solidify his reign by performing the Ashvamedha Yajna, a royal horse sacrifice that symbolized sovereignty. The capital was established at Pataliputra, with a secondary capital at Vidisha. His son, Agnimitra Shunga, is a notable figure who appears in Kalidasa’s play Malvikagnimitra, which narrates his love affair with a handmaiden. While the Shungas are often criticized for their destruction of many Buddhist sites, they were also instrumental in promoting Sanskrit literature. Scholars like Patanjali, who authored the Mahabhasya on Panini’s grammar, were active during this period. Vasumitra Shunga, a later ruler, is said to have accepted Buddhism and played a role in reconstructing Buddhist stupas that were destroyed earlier.
The Kanva Dynasty (75 BCE – 30 BCE) followed the Shungas. Vasudeva Kanva overthrew the last Shunga ruler to establish this short-lived dynasty. The Kanvas, however, continued many administrative practices from the Mauryan period before being overthrown by the Satvahanas.
Satavahanas (also known as Andhras or Andhrabhrityas)
The Satavahanas originated around 200 BCE but rose to prominence in the 1st century CE after defeating the Kanvas. Their history is primarily derived from Puranas, which provide essential insights into their dynasty.
- Simuka
- He is considered the real founder of the Satavahana dynasty. The capital of their kingdom was at Paithan or Pratisthana, located along the Godavari River.
- Gautamiputra Satakarni
- He is regarded as the most important ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. He defeated the Saka ruler Nahapana and reissued Nahapana’s coins with his own royal insignia. It was during Nahapana’s reign that the Karla Caves, the largest Buddhist caves in South Asia, were constructed in 120 CE.
- The Satavahanas were a matrilineal dynasty, and Gautamiputra Satakarni’s mother, Gautami, authored the Nasik inscription, where she proclaimed that her son was the sole protector of the Brahmins.
- During his reign, women were highly respected and enjoyed significant freedom. They were allowed to engage in inter-caste marriages and could secure independent sources of livelihood.
- Gautamiputra is credited with being the first Indian ruler to issue lead coins for commercial transactions. His reign also saw the granting of land to Brahmins in exchange for their service, marking the first known instance of such grants in Indian history.
- Pulumayi
- He was known for maintaining Gautamiputra’s territory and overseeing a prosperous kingdom. His coins, which depict ships with double masts, have been discovered on the Coromandel coast, signifying the Satavahana’s naval power and involvement in maritime trade.
- Vashisthiputra Satakarni
- This ruler entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Saka king Rudradaman, a fact noted in Rudradaman’s Junagarh inscription.
- Hala
- He is celebrated for his patronage of architecture and literature. He authored the Gatha Saptashati, a famous collection of 700 love poems written in Prakrit. These poems capture the beauty and simplicity of rural life and human emotions in gatha form.
- Yagnashri Satakarni
- He was the last powerful Satavahana ruler before the empire began to decline. His reign marked the end of the Satavahana dynasty’s influence.
Trade and Commerce during the Post-Maurya Period
During the post-Maurya period, trade flourished both by land and sea routes. Two major trade routes were particularly significant:
- Uttarapatha: This route connected Taxila (modern-day Pakistan) in the northwest to Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal (modern Bangladesh). Kausambi served as a central point along this land-cum-riverine route. The towns along Uttarapatha are mentioned in the Ashtadhyayi of Panini.
- Dakshinapatha: This route ran from Pataliputra (in Magadha) to Pratishthana (Paithan) on the Godavari River. It also connected to western ports like Bhrigukachha (Gujarat), Muziris (Kerala), and others. This route is mentioned in the Arthashastra.
On both the eastern and western coasts of India, several significant ports emerged, including Bhrigukachha in Gujarat, Muziris in Kerala, Tamralipti in West Bengal, and Arikamedu in Pondicherry. Guilds continued to operate during this period, with their leaders being referred to as Shresthas (in contrast to the Jyeshthka of the Mauryan era).
The Satavahanas are credited with starting the practice of giving royal land grants to Brahmins in exchange for their services. The terms Kakata and Skandhavaras were used to denote military camps of the Satavahanas.