The Palas

Between 750–1200 CE, northern India underwent significant changes, marked by the rise and fall of great empires and the fragmentation into smaller states. This period can be broadly divided into two phases. The first phase, from around 750 to 1000 CE, saw the emergence of three major empires: the Gurjara Pratiharas in the north, the Palas in the east, and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. These empires dominated their respective regions and frequently clashed over territory and power. The second phase, spanning from 1000 to 1200 CE, is often referred to as the Age of Conflict. By this time, the once-powerful tripartite empires had disintegrated into smaller kingdoms, with Rajput states like the Chahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras of Malwa, and Chandellas taking control over different parts of northern India.

Among the most influential dynasties during this period were the Pratiharas, also known as the Gurjara-Pratiharas, who ruled from the 8th century to the 10th century CE. Their kingdom stretched across western and northern India, and they are particularly remembered for their patronage of art, sculpture, and temple architecture. The Pratiharas gained power under Nagabhata I (730–760 CE), who successfully defended the empire against Arab invaders. The most notable ruler, however, was Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE), under whom the empire expanded and reached its zenith. During this time, the Pratiharas were locked in continuous conflict with the Palas of eastern India and the Rashtrakutas of southern India, vying for control over strategic areas such as Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj).

The rise of the Pratiharas occurred during a period of chaos following the collapse of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty in 647 CE, which had ruled from Kanyakubja. Various dynasties struggled for control, but by the 9th century CE, the Pratiharas had emerged as one of the dominant forces in the region. Their origins remain somewhat unclear, with theories suggesting that they were either foreign invaders who had assimilated into Indian society or a local group from Gurjara land (modern Gujarat). The name Pratihara comes from the Sanskrit word for “doorkeeper,” a title linked to Lakshmana from the Ramayana, who is believed to have been an ancestor of the dynasty.

Under Nagabhata I, the Pratiharas successfully repelled Arab invasions, marking the beginning of their ascendancy. While the Pratihara rulers fought against their contemporaries, inscriptions and monumental constructions from their reign offer vital insights into their era. Additionally, Arab merchants like Suleiman and al-Masudi, who visited India during the 9th and 10th centuries CE, provided accounts of the Pratihara kingdom. These travelers referred to the empire as al-Juzr (derived from the Sanskrit Gurjara) and documented the immense power and prestige of the Pratiharas, as well as the vast expanse of their empire.

Among the notable rulers of the Pratihara dynasty, Nagabhata I was the first to bring the family to prominence by defeating the Arabs. His successors, including Vatsaraja (775-800 CE) and Nagabhata II (800-833 CE), expanded the empire through military campaigns. Vatsaraja initially conquered central Rajasthan and attempted to assert control over Kanyakubja, leading to conflicts with both the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. Although he suffered a significant defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva, his son Nagabhata II managed to recover much of the lost territory, even capturing Kanyakubja. Under Nagabhata II, the Pratiharas extended their control over parts of Sindh, eastern India, and Gujarat, but he eventually lost some territories to the Rashtrakutas.

One of the most important rulers, Mihira Bhoja, ruled for almost 50 years and led a remarkable resurgence of the empire despite initial setbacks against the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Kalachuris. He regained territories in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh and annexed parts of the Pala Empire. His son, Mahendrapala I (885-910 CE), further expanded the empire into the east but faced setbacks against the king of Kashmir, who captured parts of Punjab.

The decline of the Pratiharas began under the reign of Mahipala I (c. 912-944 CE), who was defeated by the Rashtrakutas, allowing the Palas to reclaim some of their former territories. Subsequent rulers like Rajyapala and Yashpala witnessed the continued weakening of the empire. Rajyapala fled from Kannauj after an invasion by Mahmud Ghazni, which led to his assassination by Vindhyadhar Chandela. Yashpala was the last significant ruler, and by 1090 CE, Kannauj had fallen to the Gahadavala dynasty.

Throughout their rule, the Pratiharas were engaged in continuous warfare with the Palas and Rashtrakutas, a struggle known as the Tripartite Struggle. Control over Kanyakubja was of great importance because of its symbolic status as the center of north Indian sovereignty since the days of Harshavardhana. Additionally, Kanyakubja’s location in the Ganges valley, a key region for trade and agriculture, made it an essential prize. The Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas all sought to control this region, but geographic considerations and the sheer distance from the Rashtrakuta heartland in the Deccan meant that their campaigns in the north were often brief and aimed more at gaining prestige and booty than lasting territorial gains.

The Pratiharas were also significant patrons of Brahmanical religion. Their reign saw the advancement of sects like Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta, and Surya, with the construction of temples and statues being a sacred duty for their followers. Kings like Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala, and Trilochanapala were devout followers of Shaivism. Administratively, the Pratiharas retained many practices from the earlier Gupta and Harshavardhana empires. The king held supreme power and was assisted by ministers and officials. Vassal kings paid tribute, supplied troops, and formed matrimonial alliances with the royal family. Provinces were governed by uparikas and districts by vishayapatis, who collected land revenue and maintained law and order. However, as the central power weakened, the Paramaras and Chandellas sought independence, further eroding Pratihara authority.

Despite the constant warfare, the Pratiharas contributed significantly to Indian art and literature. The empire under Mahendrapala and Mahipala saw notable literary works, and Hindu temples constructed during this period still stand today. Kanauj, during the two centuries of Gurjara-Pratihara rule, became a center of art, culture, and commerce. The dynasty’s most famous architectural contributions include the Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior, an extraordinary structure dedicated to the Shakti cult. The Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and the Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj are among the most remarkable sculptures of this era.

The decline of the Pratiharas was marked by successive defeats and internal divisions. The Rashtrakutas, under Indra III and Krishna III, devastated the Pratihara empire. Their Rajput feudatories increasingly asserted independence, leading to the gradual disintegration of the empire. By the early 11th century, the Pratiharas had been reduced to a minor kingdom around Kanyakubja, and they were finally conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks. Though their rule ended, the Pratiharas left a lasting legacy in Indian history, particularly in the realms of art, architecture, and administration.