A&M Chapter 3

The Vedic Period of India, which spans from 1500 BCE to 600 BCE, is divided into two distinct phases: the Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE) and the Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE). Each period is marked by unique social, political, religious, and economic developments that shaped ancient Indian civilization.

Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE)

During the Early Vedic Age, the Indo-Aryans settled primarily in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, particularly near the Saraswati River and parts of the Indus Valley. The society at this time was predominantly pastoral, with cattle being the primary measure of wealth. Agriculture existed, but it was not the dominant form of sustenance. The economy revolved around cattle rearing, with tribes moving in search of pasture.

Socially, the society was organized into tribal units known as Janas. The tribe was led by a Rajan (tribal chief or king), elected by tribal assemblies like the Sabha and Samiti, who served as advisory bodies. The Varnas were already present in the form of three primary classes: the Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), and Vaishyas (farmers and merchants). Shudras, the laboring class, were introduced for the first time in the Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda’s 10th Mandal.

The varna system was more fluid during this period, with Brahmins conducting rituals and sacrifices, Kshatriyas leading in governance and warfare, and Vaishyas engaging in trade and agriculture. Shudras, though mentioned, played a minor role in societal organization. The family (griha) served as the primary social unit within the tribe, and it was led by the grihapati (the male head of the household). His wife was referred to as sapatni, reflecting the patriarchal structure of Vedic society, where the role of women, though respected, was primarily centered around the household. The family, led by the Grihapati, was the central unit, and women enjoyed significant roles, with some composing hymns, such as the Brahmavadinis like Lopamudra and Ghosha.

In the Rig Veda, animals like the tiger and rhinoceros, which are typically associated with tropical environments, are notably absent. This suggests that the Vedic people were not familiar with such fauna during this early phase of their civilization, possibly indicating a different geographical region or climatic conditions. Additionally, there is no evidence of an urban lifestyle in the Rig Veda, a reflection of the pastoral and tribal society that characterized this period.

The use of iron is also not mentioned in the Rig Veda, which refers primarily to copper (ayas). However, by the Later Vedic Period, the mention of iron (termed shyama ayas, or “black metal”) becomes more common, marking a significant technological advancement and transition in the material culture of the Vedic civilization.

The term “jana”, meaning tribe, is found 21 times in the Rig Veda, underscoring the tribal organization of society. However, the term “janapada”, meaning a settled territory or political unit, does not appear in this early text, highlighting the non-urban, largely nomadic, and tribal nature of Vedic society.

The Rigveda, the oldest and most significant of the four Vedas, consists of 10 Mandalas. Its hymns were composed during this time and included invocations to various deities like Indra (god of thunder and war), Agni (god of fire), and Varuna (god of moral order). Indra was the most revered deity, as reflected by the highest number of hymns dedicated to him. The Gayatri Mantra, found in the third Mandala of the Rigveda and composed by the sage Vishwamitra, was addressed to the Sun god.

The Rigveda mentions four rivers in present-day Afghanistan and seven rivers in the Sapta-Sindhu region. These rivers hold significant importance in Vedic literature and reflect the geographical understanding of the early Vedic people.

Ancient Name	Modern Name	Notes
Saraswati	(Not directly identified today)	Considered the most sacred river, referred to as Matetama, Devitama, and Naditama.
Sindhu	Indus	Mentioned most frequently in the Rigveda; also called Hiranyay.
Asakini	Chenab
Vitasta	Jhelum
Parushni	Ravi	The Battle of Ten Kings was fought on its banks.
Vipasa	Beas
Shutudri	Sutlej

River Yamuna and Ganga are mentioned in Rigveda three and one times respectively. Indus is mentioned most number of times. Indus is also called Hiranyay. Saraswati is the most sacred river, also known as Matetama, Devitama, and Naditama.

Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE)

The Later Vedic Period saw the Aryans expanding eastwards into the Indo-Gangetic plains, leading to increased agriculture, which now formed the economic backbone. With the advent of iron technology, surplus production became possible, leading to greater wealth accumulation and the establishment of trade networks. Specialized caravan traders facilitated long-distance exchange, extending even beyond the Indian subcontinent. Barter was the primary medium of exchange, as coins had not yet come into widespread use.

The Later Vedic Period saw an increasing division of society into rigid social classes, known as the Varnas. While the early Vedic period had a more fluid social structure, the Later Vedic period witnessed a sharp stratification. Brahmins solidified their control over religious rituals, while Kshatriyas gained dominance over political power. The Vaishyas were still involved in trade and agriculture, but their status started to decline relative to the upper two classes. Meanwhile, the Shudras became an oppressed class, often relegated to menial work and with fewer rights.

One of the most significant changes in the Later Vedic period was the rise of the Ashrama system, which categorized life into four stages: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit), and Sannyasa (renunciation). This life-stage-based classification aimed to structure the ideal life for an individual, emphasizing duty, sacrifice, and spiritual growth.

Gender roles became more defined, with patriarchy deepening. Women’s roles were increasingly confined to the domestic sphere, and their participation in public life diminished. However, some women continued to enjoy intellectual respect, and in certain households, they took part in Vedic rituals, but this became rarer as the rigidity of the varna and gender-based roles solidified.

The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda also emerged during this time, expanding on earlier Vedic rituals and incorporating practical and spiritual knowledge. The Yajurveda consisted of two parts: Shukla (white) and Krishna (black), with texts like the Satapatha Brahmana explaining sacrificial rites. The Atharvaveda, associated with sages Atharva and Angira, covered subjects like medicine, astrology, and botany and contained the first references to Ayurveda. The Gopatha Brahmana is the sole Brahman text associated with the Atharvaveda.

The Later Vedic Period marked a shift from nature worship toward more ritualistic practices, with an emphasis on sacrifices (yajnas) to secure material wealth and power. The influence of Brahmins in performing complex rituals increased, and religious practices became more codified and intricate. Rituals such as the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and the Rajasuya (royal consecration) gained prominence. These sacrifices were not just religious in nature but also meant to legitimize political power, as kings sought divine sanction for their rule.

Religiously, the Later Vedic Period saw a shift. Earlier gods like Indra and Agni remained important, but new deities such as Prajapati (the creator) and Rudra (later identified with Shiva) emerged as significant figures. The Upanishads were composed during this time, marking the philosophical transition from ritualism to spiritualism. They introduced the concepts of karma (action), samsara (cycle of rebirth), and moksha (liberation), which became central to Indian religious thought.

These ideas paved the way for later philosophical and religious movements, especially Buddhism and Jainism, which emerged as responses to the rigid rituals and hierarchies of Vedic society. The heterodox movements of the 6th century BCE challenged the dominance of Brahmanical orthodoxy, offering simpler spiritual paths that emphasized personal ethics, non-violence, and meditation over ritualism.

The Later Vedic Period also saw the beginning of Purana literature, chronicling the cosmology, genealogies of gods, and historical narratives. Early forms of the Mahabharata and Ramayana began to take shape. Art and craftsmanship developed significantly, reflected in the changing styles of pottery and the growth of urban centers.

Economic life in the Later Vedic Period became more diverse. While agriculture remained the principal occupation, trade and commerce expanded significantly. With the use of iron tools, agricultural productivity increased, allowing for surplus production. The development of urban centers began in certain regions, especially in the Ganga-Yamuna doab. These urban centers became hubs of trade and craftsmanship, attracting merchants, artisans, and intellectuals. The use of iron led to improved plows, and irrigation techniques enabled larger-scale farming.

The period saw the development of the monarchical system, with kings exercising more centralized control. Kingship became hereditary, and rulers performed grand rituals such as the Ashvamedha to display their dominance. The notion of divine kingship became more entrenched, with kings taking on titles like Samrat (universal ruler). The later Vedic kings, unlike their earlier counterparts, held more autocratic power, although they still maintained a ritual relationship with the Brahmins, who were responsible for performing sacrifices that legitimized their rule.

As the kingdom grew in complexity, the administrative machinery also developed. The kings appointed officials to help with governance, including Purohits (priests), Senanis (army chiefs), and Gramins (village heads). While the tribal assemblies like the Sabha and Samiti continued to exist, their importance diminished, while Vidhata completely disappered, as power became more concentrated in the hands of the monarch.

Mahajanapadas (600 BC- 345 BC)

The Mahājanapadas were sixteen significant kingdoms and aristocratic republics that existed in ancient India between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE during what is known as the second urbanisation period. These political entities marked a pivotal time in India’s history, as large cities re-emerged for the first time since the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The 6th and 5th centuries BCE are often seen as a turning point in early Indian history. It was during this period that several urban centres and city-states flourished, and sramana movements (including Buddhism and Jainism) began to challenge the religious orthodoxy of the Vedic period. The period also witnessed political diversity, with some Mahājanapadas functioning as gaṇasaṅghas (aristocratic republics), while others were monarchies.

Ancient Buddhist texts, such as the Anguttara Nikaya, frequently reference the sixteen great kingdoms and republics that stretched across a vast region—from Gandhara in the northwest, to Anga in the east, and Asmaka in the southern part of the subcontinent. The influence of these Mahājanapadas extended even to parts of the trans-Vindhyan region, and all of them had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism.

In terms of archaeological evidence, this period partially corresponds to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture, indicating significant advancements in urbanisation and craftsmanship during this time.

List of 16 Mahajanapadas

The 16 Mahajanapadas were Magadha, Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa, Gandhara, Kamboja, Chedi, Vajji, Malla, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, and Assaka.

 

• Anga was first mentioned in the Atharvaveda, along with Magadha, Gandhari, and Mujavat, often as a despised group. Despite this, the Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas among the first Aryan peoples and lists their principal cities. Anga became a great center of trade and commerce, with merchants sailing to Suvarnabhumi. It was later annexed by Magadha under King Bimbisara, marking his only recorded conquest.
• Ashmaka was located in southern India, in what is now Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra. In Buddha’s time, many Ashmakas lived near the Godavari River. The capital was Potana (modern-day Bodhan in Telangana) or Paudanya, mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Ashmakas were located on the Dakshinapatha (southern trade route) and are noted in texts like Pāṇini and the Markendeya Purana. At one time, their kingdom included Mulaka and bordered Avanti.
• Avanti, one of India’s four major monarchies during the time of Mahavira and Buddha, was divided into northern and southern regions by the Narmada River. The northern capital was Ujjaini (modern-day Ujjain), and the southern capital was Mahishamati. Avanti corresponded to modern Malwa and parts of Madhya Pradesh. It was a significant Buddhist center and later became part of the Magadhan empire after King Shishunaga of Magadha defeated King Nandivardhana of Avanti.
• Chedi, also known as Chetya or Chetis, had two settlements—one in the mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand. It lay between the kingdoms of Kurus and Vatsas, and its southern borders extended to the Narmada River. The capital was Suktimati (also called Sotthivatnagara), though its exact location is debated. Some historians believe it was near Banda, Uttar Pradesh, while others, like Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti, suggest it may be identified with Itaha, near Rewa, Madhya Pradesh.
• Gandhāra was known for its wool, referenced in the Rigveda, and played a significant role in the Mahabharata, with its people being fierce warriors. It was founded by Gandhara, a descendant of Yayati, from the lunar dynasty. Taksashila (Taxila) and Pushkalavati were key cities, named after the sons of Bharata, younger brother of Rama. Taksashila University became a renowned center of learning, with scholars like Pāṇini and Kautilya. The kingdom stretched from eastern Afghanistan to northwest Punjab and was an important center for international commerce along the Uttarapatha (northern high road). Gandhara, culturally connected to Kamboja, often aligned with Kashmira. King Pukkusati of Gandhara was a contemporary of Bimbisara of Magadha. The Gandhara region eventually fell under the Achaemenid Empire during the reign of Cyrus II, and later under the rule of Darius.
• Kamboja, part of the Uttarapatha, comprised regions on both sides of the Hindukush, with the original settlement in the eastern Oxus region. Over time, some Kambojas moved south of the Hindukush, planting colonies in the cis-Hindukush area, which bordered Darada and Gandhara. The capital of Kamboja was likely Rajapura (modern Rajauri, southwest of Kashmir). Kambojas had both Iranian and Indian cultural influences, with two distinct settlements: cis-Hindukush and trans-Hindukush. The trans-Hindukush region, known as Parama-Kamboja, bordered Bactria, Sogdiana, and Fergana.
  • The Kambojas are noted as a republican people in ancient literature. Pāṇini refers to their Kshatriya monarchy, but the Mahabharata and Ashoka’s Edicts mention their republican governance. Kamboja was part of the richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus II is said to have destroyed the prominent Kamboja city of Kapisi (modern Begram) during his conquests.

• Kāśī was a powerful kingdom located around its capital, Varanasi, bounded by the Varuna and Asi rivers. Before the rise of Buddha, Kāśī was one of the most dominant of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. The capital was renowned for its prosperity, and the kingdom was involved in power struggles with Kosala, Anga, and Magadha. Eventually, Kosala conquered Kāśī during the reign of King Kansa, contemporary with Buddha. Vedic texts often mention Kāśī alongside Kosala and Videha, highlighting their close connections. Ancient texts, including the Matsya Purana and Alberuni, refer to Kāśī with slight variations in spelling like Kausika and Kaushaka.
• Kosala was located northwest of Magadha, with Ayodhya as its capital. It spanned modern Awadh and had boundaries along the Ganges to the south and the Himalayas to the north. King Prasenajit, a contemporary of Mahavira and Buddha, ruled Kosala, which later faced conflicts with Magadha. Prasenajit strengthened ties with Magadha through a matrimonial alliance, but Kosala was eventually annexed by Magadha under Vidudabha. Its chief cities included Ayodhya, Saketa, Banaras, and Sravasti.
• The Kuru kingdom traced its origins to the Puru-Bharata dynasty, with Kuru emerging as a notable ancestor. Located in Madhyadesha, the Kuru region corresponded to modern Thanesar, Delhi, and Meerut. The capital was Indraprastha (modern Delhi). The Kurus, known for their wisdom and sound health, transitioned from a monarchical system in the Vedic period to a republican government by the 6th century BCE, as noted in Kautiliya’s Arthashastra. They had ties with neighboring tribes like the Yadavas, Bhojas, and Panchalas.
• Magadha was one of the most prominent Mahajanapadas, located in modern Patna and Gaya in Bihar and parts of Bengal. Its capital, Pataliputra, was strategically bounded by rivers and the Vindhya mountains. Initially, its capital was Rajagaha (modern Rajgir), a key center for Jainism and Buddhism. Magadha’s rulers, including Bimbisara and Ajatashatru, expanded the kingdom by annexing Anga and engaging in conflicts with neighboring powers.
• The Malla kingdom, often mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts, consisted of a republican people with a dominion of nine territories. The Mallas are associated with two important capitals, Kushinagar and Pava, which played significant roles during Buddha’s final days. Buddha passed away in Kushinagar, making it a crucial pilgrimage site for Buddhists today.
• Matsya was a kingdom located south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna River, covering the region that corresponds to modern Jaipur, Alwar, and parts of Bharatpur in Rajasthan. Its capital was Viratanagara (modern Bairat), named after its founder, King Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas were often linked to the Surasenas. Despite their presence, the Matsyas were not politically significant during Buddha’s time. A branch of the Matsya tribe was later found in the Visakhapatnam region.
• The Pañcāla kingdom lay to the east of the Kurus, occupying the region between the Ganges River and the Himalayas, which corresponds to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad, and nearby districts of Uttar Pradesh. The kingdom was divided into two parts: Uttara-Panchala in the north, with its capital at Adhichhatra (modern Ramnagar), and Dakshina-Panchala in the south, with its capital at Kampilya (modern Kampil). Over time, the Panchalas transitioned from a monarchy to a republican system during the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, a change noted in Kautiliya’s Arthashastra.
• Śūrasena was a kingdom located to the east of Matsya and west of the Yamuna, covering parts of modern Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. Its capital was Mathura, a city closely associated with Krishna worship and Buddhism. Avantiputra, the king of Śūrasena, was a key disciple of Buddha and helped spread Buddhism in the region. The Vrishnis and Andhakas of Mathura formed a sangha or republic, with Krishna described as the leader of this confederation. Eventually, Śūrasena was annexed by the Magadhan empire.
• Vajji, also known as Vṛji, was a confederation of several clans, including the Licchavis. It was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, with its capital at Vaishali, located in Mithila (modern northern Bihar and parts of Nepal). The Vajji state functioned as a republic and is referenced in texts such as the Anguttara Nikaya and the Bhagavati Sutra. Prominent figures like Pāṇini, Chanakya, and Xuanzang mention this state.
• The Vatsa or Vamsa kingdom was a branch of the Kurus, located in what is now Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh. Its capital was Kausambi, a prosperous city and important trade hub. Udayana, its ruler in the 6th-5th century BCE, was known for his military power and initially resisted Buddhism before eventually embracing it. His mother, Queen Mrigavati, holds the distinction of being one of the earliest known female rulers in Indian history.

Some of these Mahajanapadas were republics, such as the Vrijjis or Vajjis (with Vaishali as their capital in the Mithila region). Vajji, Malla, Kuru, and Kamboja were notable ganatantras (republic states), while the others were monarchies. However, the ancient Indian ganas were not democracies in the modern sense. Power was concentrated in the hands of an aristocracy composed of the leading Kshatriya families. There was no single hereditary monarch in these republics. Instead, leadership was vested in a chief, known by titles such as ganapati, ganajyestha, ganaraja, or sanghamukhya, who worked alongside an aristocratic council. This council met in a hall called the santhagara to make important decisions.